Generally 3 types of data collection techniques are employed by qualitative researchers: Document analysis, Inteview and Observation. W. James Potter in his book "An Analysis of Thinking and Research about Qualitative Methods" (1996). New Jersey: Mahwah; argues that that "many research projects use more than one type of method, because a combination of methods will provide the researcher with more different kinds of evidence, thus making comparisons richer and more contextualised" (p.95).
1) DOCUMENTS
Documents provide a rich sources of evidence about the phenomenon being examined which include: letters, memos, notes, diaries, journals, photographs, audiotapes, videotapes, films, articles, books, manuscripts, e-mails, discussion in bulletin boards, short-messaging system (SMS), multimedia messaging system (MMS), advertisements and so forth.
Documents provide an insight into the thinking, actions, interactions and creations of individuals or groups of people. Without doubt, historians rely on documents to explain events, decisions made and consequences of actions by humans in the past and perhaps confirmed with interviews of living persons.
Example: Data Gathering From Documents
The System Analyst is a person who helps organisations develop and design information systems. Before the system analyst can design such a system, he or she needs to collect data about the organisation and one method used is examining documents. Documents reveal where the organisation has been and where its memebrs believe it is going. Two types of documents are examined by the system analyst: Quantitative documents such as reports used for decision making, performance reports, records, data capture forms; and Qualitative documents such as e-mail, memos, messages, signs on bulletin boards, manuals and handbooks.
a) Analysing Quantitative Documents
i) Reports used for decision making: these include paper reports regarding sales, inventory or production; these are reports used by management to make decisions.
ii) Performance reports: includes intended and actual performance which reveals whether the gap is narrowing or widening
iii) Records: records reveals about what is happening in the organisation; accuracy of reports; manually done or computerised
iv) Data capture forms: the forms used to capture or collect information. eg. application for leave; whether the form is print-based or online -- collect samples of such forms
b) Analysing Qualitative Documents
Qualitative documents in an organisation such as e-mails. memos, signs on bulletin boards, website, manuals, handbooks, etc. that circulate in an organisation reveal how members are interacting with one another and how the organisation moves. For example, the system analyst will look out for metaphors or the language used because it may shape behaviour of members. The language may manfiest itself in the memos sent, e-mail messages or signs on bulletin boards. If employess are seen as "cogs in a wheel" it might indicate a mechanistic view of the organisation. On the other hand if they view themselves as "One big happy family", then relationships among members in the organisation may be interpreted as less mechanistic and more cordial.
Analysis of language in documents may also reveal something about the "politics" of the organisation. For example, is there evidence to indicate that departments are battling against each other. Analysis of memos and signs on the bulletin board might indicate the values, attitudes and beliefs of members in the organisation regarding punctuality, wastage, cleanliness, safety, dress code, etc. Document analysis can also indicate whether the organisation has a sense of humour. For example, jokes, punch lines, cartoons and quotations posted on the bulletin board might reveal whether the organisaton is traditional or more open and modern.
3) INTERVIEWING
Interviewing is the technique of gathering data from asking humans questions and getting them to react verbally. "Before you interview someone else, you must in effect interview youself. You need to know your biases and how they will affect your perceptions. Your education, intellect, upbringing, emotions and ethical framewok all serve as powerful filters for what you will be hearing in your interviews" [K.Laudon & J. Laudon (2002). Systems Analysis and Design, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall International. p. 117]
The interview is used to obtain information relating to biographical information (background) of the subjects, their beliefs about certain phenomenon, feelings, motives, present and past behaviour and conscious reasons for actions or feelings (Catherine Wojck, 2002). The interviews are open-ended or semi-structured, perhaps revolving around a few central questions or issues. The unstructured nature of the interview can yield information the researcher did not expect to obtain, because the interview may proceed in different directions for different people. It is quite impossible to predict all the possible responses and so the open-ended question allows for unplanned or unexpected responses. However, the disadvantage is that the researcher may have difficulty making comparisons because different information was gathered from a variety of individuals.
Interview Probes
To enable one to get more information about the feelings, opinions, beliefs, perceptions, etc. of subjects, interview probes may be used. Patton (1990) identified 3 types of interview probes:
1) Detail-oriented probes.
In our natural conversations we ask each other questions to get more detail. These types of follow-up questions are designed to fill out the picture of whatever it is we are trying to understand. We easily ask these questions when we are genuinely curious.
Examples: Who was with you? What was it like being there? Where did you go then? When did this happen in your life? How are you going to try to deal with the situation?
2) Elaboration probes.
Another type of probe is designed to encourage the interviewee to tell us more. We indicate our desire to know more by such things as gently nodding our head as the person talks, softly voicing 'un-huh' every so often, and sometimes by just remaining silent but attentive. We can also ask for the interviewee to simply continue talking.
Examples: Tell me more about that. Can you give me an example of what you are talking about? I think I understand what you mean. Talk more about that, will you? I'd like to hear you talk more about that.
3) Clarification probes.
There are likely to be times in an interview when the interviewer is unsure of what the interviewee is talking about, what she or he means. In these situations the interviewer can gently ask for clarification, making sure to communicate that it is the interviewer's difficulty in understanding and not the fault of the interviewee.
Examples: I'm not sure I understand what you mean by 'hanging out'. Can you help me understand what that means? I'm having trouble understanding the problem you've described. Can you talk a little more about that? I want to make sure I understand what you mean. Would you describe it for me again?
I'm sorry. I don't quite get. Tell me again, would you?
2) OBSERVATION
Observation is the technique of gathering data through DIRECT CONTACT with the person being observed by watching the behaviour of participants. In other words, the researcher seeks to gain insight about what is going on; to see firsthand the relationships that exist between members in the group being observed. The observation method is used by both quantitative and qualitative researchers but the latter tends to be more structured and systematic.
Example: OBSERVING RACIAL INTERACTION BEFORE SCHOOL, DURING RECESS AND AFTER SCHOOL IN A 'SEKOLAH WAWASAN'
In the 'Sekolah Wawasan' pupils from Sekolah Rendah Kebangsaan, Sekolah Rendah Kebangsaan Tamil and Sekolah Rendah Kebangsaan Cina share a common canteen and playing field. To what extent is there interaction between pupils of different races? To observe what is going on, the researcher has 3 ways of going about it.
1) Pasive Observer: the pupils know that he or she is a researcher (not sure whether primary school kids know what it means!!) but after sometime his or her presence is ignored by them. No questions are asked.
2) Active Observer: the researcher takes an active role by asking questions which may lead to the subjects being more conscious of his or her presence and role.
3) Active Participant: the researcher engages in behaviour to alter the situation so as to see the reaction of the subject. For example, he or she might bring a ball and get pupils to play football during recess and observe what happens.
Qualitative researchers usually observe phenomenon by immersing themselves in the natural setting and allow themselves to be struck with certain peculiarities or interesting happenings or actions that may emerge from the group. Quite often when you interview someone, there is the tendency for the subject to tell you something that he or she does but in reality does not do so. So, the observation method allows the researcher to confirm whether the subject does what he/she claims to do.
The System Analyst is a person who helps organisations develop and design information systems. Before the system analyst can design such a system, he or she needs to collect data about the organisation and one method used is examining documents. Documents reveal where the organisation has been and where its memebrs believe it is going. Two types of documents are examined by the system analyst: Quantitative documents such as reports used for decision making, performance reports, records, data capture forms; and Qualitative documents such as e-mail, memos, messages, signs on bulletin boards, manuals and handbooks.
